Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System
A block header without any transactions requires approximately 80 bytes of storage.
Bitcoin
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8 GWh per year
Estimated annual energy consumption of Ethereum. Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research) p.9
Optimization of Dynamic Crypto Portfolios via Deep Reinforcement Learning Under Transaction Costs
The DRL-PPO strategy generated an annualized return of 37.22% under a 0.1% transaction cost constraint.
DL-RL: Dual-Layer Graph Neural Networks with Curriculum Reinforcement Learning for Financial Fraud Detection
Financial fraud imposes estimated annual global losses exceeding $5.1 trillion, while digital payment fraud grows at over 30% per year.
Relationship Between Risk Perception, Trust, and Adoption of Cryptocurrency-Based Payment Systems in Africa
The study conducts a structured review of literature spanning from 2018 to 2025 to synthesize how behavioral and contextual factors influence cryptocurrency payment adoption in African economies.
Measuring Ethereum's Energy Consumption for EU Reporting
Under the EU Markets in Crypto-Assets Regulation (MiCAR), supplementary sustainability reporting is triggered when annual energy consumption exceeds 500,000 kWh per year.
Federal Reserve Monetary Policy Changes and Short-Term Bitcoin Returns: An Event Study Analysis of FOMC Rate Actions
The empirical analysis examines 26 FOMC rate-change announcements from 2017 through 2024, comprising 18 rate hikes and 8 rate cuts.
Inflation, Exchange Rate Movements and Cryptocurrency Returns in Nigeria: Evidence from a Structural VAR Model
The paper investigates the dynamic relationships between headline inflation, official naira/US-dollar exchange rate, and returns of five cryptocurrencies using a seven-variable structural vector autoregressive (SVAR) model.
Object Types and the Assessment of Value Equivalence in the Disposal of Criminal Virtual Currency
Virtual currency crimes in China reached a scale of RMB 430.7 billion in 2023.
Anatomy of the Binance Hot-Wallet Breach of 29 October 2026
An attacker moved roughly US$6.3 billion out of Binance wallets across ten blockchains, with most funds leaving within about 20 minutes starting at 20:05 UTC on 29 October 2026.
A Graph Neural Network Platform for Blockchain Anti-Money Laundering: A Literature Review and Proposed System Architecture
The Elliptic benchmark dataset contains roughly 204 thousand Bitcoin transactions linked by about 234 thousand payment-flow edges across 49 time steps.
Artificial Intelligence for Detecting Irregularities in Banking Operations
The dataset used for fraud recognition research contains 50,000 samples, consisting of 47,573 normal transactions, 2,423 fraudulent transactions, and four unlabeled samples.
K-Means Clustering for Identifying Suspicious Patterns in Ethereum Networks
The experimental results show that the proposed K-Means clustering model achieved a classification accuracy of 98.07% and an F1-score of 98.08%.
Taxation of Cryptocurrencies in Income and Value Added Tax in Ecuador: Regulatory Analysis and Feasibility
More than 10.000 types of cryptocurrencies exist worldwide, with Bitcoin being the most widely recognized and capitalized digital asset.
The Effectiveness of Blockchain Integration in Digital Payment Systems on Transparency and User Experience
The study collected and analyzed data from 407 respondents using multiple linear regression in R via the Kaggle platform to examine blockchain-integrated digital payment systems.
Legal Liability Arising from Crypto Asset Losses in Turkish Law
Turkey ranks 3’üncü globally in crypto asset ownership according to industry data cited in the article.
Measuring and comparing investment risks for a sample of cryptocurrencies using the Value at Risk (VAR) model and the Conditional Value at Risk (CVAR) model
The dataset includes 1,095 daily observations per cryptocurrency, generating a total of 6,570 observations for analysis in EViews.
Analyzing the Dynamics of Cryptocurrency Rate of Return through Social Media for Financial Trends
The study examines Twitter and Telegram data between July 19, 2023, and July 19, 2024, to evaluate social media sentiment impacts on Bitcoin, Ether, and Binance returns.
Performance Guarantees for Permissionless Lending
The paper introduces a permissionless asynchronous lending protocol offering fixed-rate, fixed-duration loans with mathematical performance guarantees [p.1].
Cryptocurrency Ecosystem: A Comprehensive Review of Market Dynamics, Adoption, Regulatory Framework, Security and Sustainability
The paper synthesizes cryptocurrency literature using a curated reference base of 84 scholarly and foundational sources.
Commodity Ownership Tokenization: Formation Logic and Evolution Path of the Third Category of Standardized Asset Market — A Perspective from the Digital Gold Voucher System
The paper demonstrates that real-world asset tokenization gives birth to a third category of standardized asset market beyond stock and futures markets (page 2).
Market Efficiency in a Changing Asset Population: Mobility, Entry, and Survival over Cryptocurrency's Full History
The study analyzes weak-form efficiency across 8,970 assets and 690 weekly cross-sections from 2013 to 2026, evaluating mobility across market capitalisation deciles.
Sources of Cryptocurrency Return Predictability: Econometric and Machine Learning Evidence Across Market States
Predicting cryptocurrency return levels out-of-sample is highly challenging, with every model producing a negative out-of-sample R², where Random Forest performs best at -0.29% and OLS records -1.28%.
How Financially Literate Is Generation Z? A Cross-Country Study
Primary microdata was collected from 1,653 university students to evaluate the determinants of Generation Z financial literacy across Spain and Ecuador.
FinTech Disruption, Retail Banking Dynamics, and Digital Financial Assets: A Volatility Spillover and Risk-Adjusted Performance Analysis
Retail banking delivered an annual return of 15.83 percent compared to minus 23.18 percent for FinTech disruptors.
Algorithms, Platforms, and Blockchain: Future Scenarios of Finance in the Era of Digital Disintermediation
Digital payment transactions in the European Union increased from 4.8% of total transactions in 2007 to 73.3% in 2014.
Bitcoin and Digital Assets Allocation for Advisors: How to Size Client Portfolios
Bitcoin's rolling three-month volatility averaged around 38% after US spot ETFs launched in January 2024, compared to close to 60% before 2024.
The Bitwise/VettaFi 2025 Benchmark Survey of Financial Advisor Attitudes Toward Crypto Assets
In 2024, Bitcoin rose 123% to an all-time high of over $108,000, propelled by spot Bitcoin ETFs in the U.S. gathering more than $35 billion in assets.
The Bitwise/VettaFi 2024 Benchmark Survey of Financial Advisor Attitudes Toward Crypto Assets
Only 39% of financial advisors believe a spot bitcoin ETF will be approved in 2024, compared to Bloomberg ETF analysts who estimate a 90% chance of a January approval.
Macro-Financial Implications of Foreign Crypto Assets for Small Developing Economies
Total crypto asset market capitalization peaked at around $3 trillion in November 2021 before falling below $1 trillion.
The Rise of Payment and Contracting Platforms
The IMF mandate is governed by the central banks and finance ministries of 190 member countries.
The Bitwise/VettaFi 2023 Benchmark Survey of Financial Advisor Attitudes Toward Crypto Assets
Fifteen percent of advisors reported allocating to crypto in client accounts in the 2023 survey, compared to 16% in the previous year.
Digital Currencies and Energy Consumption
The global payment system is estimated to consume 47.3 TWh of energy annually, accounting for roughly 0.2 percent of total global electricity consumption.
Capital Flow Management Measures in the Digital Age: Challenges of Crypto Assets
Globally, the scale of crypto assets remains relatively small at $2–$3 trillion, or about 1 percent of total market value of financial assets.
Blockchain Consensus Mechanisms: A Primer for Supervisors
Bitcoin block rewards fell from 12.5 Bitcoins to 6.25 Bitcoins in May 2020.
The Rise of Digital Money
E-money and i-money represent new forms of digital money competing directly with traditional cash and bank deposits.